Table of Contents
Acknowledgments xv
About the Authors xvii
About This Book xix
1 An Overview of the Field of Learning Disabilities 1
- History of Learning Disabilities 2
- Causal Factors 6
- Incidence 8
- Primary Characteristics of Learning Disabilities 8
- Comorbid or Co-occurring Conditions 9
- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 9
- Conduct Disorder 10
- Tourette Syndrome 10
- Prognosis 10
- Programs and Settings for the Learning Disabled 11
- Facts About Learning Disabilities 12
- Summary 14
- List of Major Organizations for the Learning Disabled 14
- Periodicals on Learning Disabilities 15
2 Research in the Field of Learning Disabilities 17
- Overview of the Brain, Biology, and Behavior 17
- Brain Injury 20
- Structural Brain Differences 22
- Biochemical Infl uences 25
- Research on Memory 27
- Research on Metacognition 28
- Research on Phonological Processing Problems 42
- Research on Maturation and Retention 43
- Research on Communication Problems 45
- Research on Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy 45
- Research on Teachers’ Perceptions 46
- Research on Social Competence and Social Skills Training 46
- Summary 47
3 Understanding the Laws 48
- Parental Rights 50
- Parents as Advocates 53
- Student Rights 53
- Teacher Rights and Obligations 53
- Behavioral Goals and Behavioral Improvement Plans 54
- Student and Parental Rights Regarding Suspension or Expulsion 56
- Summary 57
4 Early Childhood Education for At-Risk Students 58
- Special Education Services from Birth Through Age Two 62
- Special Education Services for Children Ages Three Through Five 63
- Assessment of Young Children 64
- The Components of an Effective Early Childhood Education Program 65
- Maturation and “Readiness” for Kindergarten 66
- Summary 67
5 The Student Study Team Process 68
- The Case for Early Intervention 69
- Recognizing the Need 69
- Talking with Parents 69
- Parent and Student Preparation for the Student Study Team (SST) 71
- Predictable Parental Feelings and Reactions 74
- Initiating a Request for a Student Study Meeting 74
- The Student Study Team Process 74
- The Roles of the SST Members 76
- Digital Classroom Accommodations 83
- Sensory Accommodations 85
6 Formal Assessment and Identifi cation of the Student with Learning Disabilities 86
- The Multidisciplinary Team Process 86
- Roles of the Members of the Multidisciplinary Team 87
- Guidelines for Assessment 88
- Intellectual Assessment 89
- Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 89
- Visual Perception 91
- Auditory Perception 93
- Memory 94
- Academic Assessment 94
- Commonly Used Tests 95
- Classroom and Playground Observations 96
- Time-on-Task Assessment 100
- Language Assessment 102
- Health Assessment 103
- Behavioral Assessment 103
- Summary 104
7 Planning for the Student with Learning Disabilities 110
- Eligibility Issues 111
- The Discrepancy Model 113
- Exclusionary Criteria 114
- Assessment Scores and Their Implication for Learning 115
- Eligible or Not Eligible? Developing the Individual Education Plan (IEP) 117
- Choosing the Appropriate Educational Setting (“Least Restrictive Environment”) 117
- Determining the Number of Hours 118
- Writing Appropriate, Measurable Objectives 119
- The Purpose of Goals 119
- Dissenting Opinions 120
- Reviews of the IEP 120
- The Annual Review 120
- The Triennial Review 120
- Special Reviews 120
- Due Process 120
8 Classroom Management for Teachers 127
- Creating an Attractive and Useful Classroom 127
- Planning the First Week’s Activities 128
- Behavioral Management Considerations 129
- Positive Reinforcement 129
- Rules 130
- Settling Students After a Recess 132
- Projecting a Positive Feeling 132
- Finding Better Ways to Talk to Students 133
- Preventing Misbehavior 134
- Keep the Environment Consistent and Structured 134
- Help Students Succeed 134
- Use Rewards, Contracts, Tokens, and Reinforcers 135
- Rewards 135
- Contracts 136
- Lotteries 136
- Token Economies 136
- Handling Misbehavior 138
- “Ball in Your Court” Technique 139
- Timeout 139
- Crisis Management 140
- Four Types of Challenging Students 140
- Record Keeping 143
- Using the Classroom Aide Effectively 144
- Twenty Tips for Successful Classroom Management 144
- Sample Approaches to Handling Inappropriate Behaviors 146
- Summary 149
9 Academic Management Considerations 150
- Curriculum, Setting, and Students’ Needs 151
- Getting to Know Your Students’ Academic Needs Quickly Through Informal Testing 152
- Goal Setting and Effective Lesson Design 152
- Planning the School Day 155
- Planning for Flexibility 156
- Scheduling and Pacing 156
- Using a Variety of Activities 156
- Grouping Students 156
- Allowing Students Some Choice in Assignments and Rewards 156
- Transforming Passive Students into Participatory Students 157
- Overcoming Failure Syndrome 157
- Planning Cooperative Learning Tasks 158
- Suggestions for Maximizing Educational Results 159
- Improving Lesson Results Through Feedback 160
- Improving Learning Through Specifi c Teaching Techniques 161
- Tests That Teach 161
- Story Mapping, Advanced Organizers, and Webs 162
- Mnemonics 164
- Use of Higher-Level Thinking Activities 164
- Issues of Grading and Evaluation 165
- Tips for Academic Management 166
10 Interventions for Specific Problems 168
- Visual Perceptual Deficits 169
- Auditory Processing Deficits 172
- Spatial Awareness Deficits 174
- Conceptual Deficits 175
- Memory Deficits 177
- Students with Poor Work Habits 180
- Interventions for Other Common LD Classroom Problems 182
- Students with Poor Social Relationships or Behaviors 185
- Students with Dyslexia 191
- Sample History Assignment 193
- Students with ADD or ADHD 194
- Medical Treatment of ADD and ADHD 194
- Behavioral Considerations for Students with ADD or ADHD 196
- Tips for Classroom Teachers 197
11 Reading and the Student with Learning Disabilities 199
- Who Will Have Trouble Learning to Read? 200
- Elements of a Balanced Literacy Program 200
- Phonemic Awareness 201
- Sample Phonemic Awareness Lesson 1: Kindergarten–Grade 1 202
- Sample Phonemic Awareness Lesson 2: Kindergarten–Grade 1 203
- Sample Phonemic Awareness Lesson 3: Grades 1–2 (Instructional Level) 205
- Sample Phonemic Awareness Lesson 4: Any Grade to High School 206
- A Step-by-Step Guide for Teaching Reading to Students with Learning Disabilities 207
- Letter Recognition and Sound Knowledge 210
- Working with the Nonreader 211
- Working with the Emergent Reader 216
- Materials for Beginning and Emergent Readers 218
- Working with the Guided Reader 220
- Tips for Teaching Reading 228
12 Writing, Spelling, and Speaking 256
- Printing 259
- Teaching the Mechanics of Writing 260
- Sample Interactive Writing Lesson (Instructional Level 1.3) 262
- Sample Writing Lesson (Instructional Level 2.5) 265
- Spelling for Young Students with Learning Disabilities 266
- Materials 266
- Methods 267
- Speaking Activities for Young Students with Learning Disabilities 270
- Handwriting Skills for Older Students with Learning Disabilities 271
- The Mechanics of Writing for Older Students with Learning Disabilities 274
- Letter Writing 277
- E-mails and Digital Communication 278
- Report Writing 278
- Journal Writing 279
- Spelling Activities for Older Students with Learning Disabilities 280
- Speaking Opportunities for Older Students with Learning Disabilities 285
- Sample Lesson: Recognizing Nouns 286
- Sample Lesson: Recognizing Verbs 288
- Writing Activities 290
- My Accident 291
- Title of My Story 292
13 Teaching Mathematically Challenged Students 297
- Diagnosing a Student’s Difficulties 297
- Teaching Techniques 299
- Levels of Understanding: Concrete, Representational, and Abstract 299
- Incorporating Reading into the Math Curriculum 303
- Teaching Specific Skills 305
- Counting Symbols and One-to-One Correspondence 305
- Beginning Addition 306
- Counting and Understanding the Numbers 0–100 307
- Recognizing and Counting Coins 309
- Place Value: Ones and Tens Place 309
- Counting by Fives 311
- Time—by the Hour 312
- Time—by Hour and Minute 312
- Beginning Subtraction 314
- Doing and Undoing: Plus and Minus 314
- Building Numbers 316
- Addition and Regrouping 317
- More and Less 317
- Simple Story Problems 318
- Subtraction With and Without Regrouping 318
- Rounding Numbers to the Nearest 10 or Nearest 100 320
- Recognizing and Spelling Number Words 320
- Place Value—Through Thousands 323
- Linear Measurement 323
- Simple Multiplication Techniques 324
- Simple Division Techniques 327
- Doing and Undoing (Multiplication and Division) 327
- Liquid Measurement 328
- Fractions 328
- Estimating 331
- More Complex Story Problems 331
- More Complex Division 332
- Relating Fractions to Decimals 332
- Making Change 333
- Summary 333
14 Adolescents and Adults with Learning Disabilities 335
- Understanding the Changing Needs of the Adolescent 335
- School Changes 335
- Physical Changes 336
- Efforts to Engage the Junior High Student in the Educational Process 337
- Departmentalization (School Within a School) 337
- Personal Efforts of Individual Teachers 338
- Curriculum for the Junior High School 339
- Basic Skills 340
- Strategies to Increase Metacognition and Learning 341
- The Art of Counseling Adolescent Students 341
- Teaching Students to Be Their Own Advocates 343
- Transition IEPs 346
- Understanding the Needs of the High School Student with Learning Disabilities 346
- Work-Study Program 347
- Continuation Schools and Independent Study Programs 348
- Life and Social Skills 348
- Understanding the Needs of the Young Adult with Learning Disabilities 348
- Services Available to Students Going to College 350
- Vocational Rehabilitation Services for the Learning Disabled 351
- Adult Education Opportunities 351
15 The Role of the Family 352
- The Role of Parents—as Parents 352
- The Home Environment 353
- Providing Worthwhile Activities 354
- The Role of Parents—as Teachers 354
- Supervision of Homework 354
- Helping at School 356
- The Role of Parents—as Advocates 356
- Tips for Helping Your Child 357
16 Education in the New Millennium 359
- Increased Mainstreaming 359
- Increased Use of Technology 360
- Class Size 361
- Teacher Preparation Trends and Issues 362
- Professional Salaries and Working Conditions 362
- Conclusion 363
References 365
Further Reading 373
Index 377
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